Реферат: Міністерство освіти І науки україни ізмаїльський інститут водного транспорту кафедра сучасних мов І гуманітарних дисциплін

МІНІСТЕРСТВО ОСВІТИ І НАУКИ УКРАЇНИ

ІЗМАЇЛЬСЬКИЙ ІНСТИТУТ ВОДНОГО ТРАНСПОРТУ

Кафедра сучасних мов і гуманітарних дисциплін


Шиляєва Т.В.


МЕТОДИЧНІ ВКАЗІВКИ


ДО ВИВЧЕННЯ ДИСЦИПЛІНИ

“Порівняльна лексикологія ”


для студентів 3 курсу (денне відділення)


Ізмаїл 2011-2012


PLANS OF THE SEMINARS IN COMPARATIVE LEXICOLOGY

Theme І

ETYMOLOGICAL CHARACTERISTICS OF THE MODERN ENGLISH AND UKRAINIAN VOCABULARY


The aim is: to examine the etymology of the English and Ukrainian vocabulary and its historical development, the comparative importance of native and borrowed elements in replenishing the English and Ukrainian vocabulary.


^ The tasks are:

to differenciate words of native origin and borrowings;

to discriminate between the source of borrowing and origin of the word;

taking into consideration the pronunciation of the word, its morphological structure and lexical meaning to determine whether the word belongs to the borrowed element;

to analyze the type and degree of assimilation of borrowings;

to observe the influence of borrowings on the word-structure and the system of word-building, the phonetic structure of words and the sound system, on the semantic structure of words and their stylistic characteristics;

to learn working definitions of principal concepts.

Points for Discussion


1. The composite nature of the English vocabulary. Words of native origin (words of the Indo-European stock, of common Germanic stock, the English proper element) and their semantic characteristics, collocability, derivational potential.

2. The composite nature of the Ukrainian vocabulary.

3. Borrowings. Causes and ways of borrowing. The elements of Early Latin. Borrowings from the Scandinavian language. The Norman Conquest and Norman borrowings. The fourth layer of the Latin borrowings. The Greek element in the English vocabulary. Lexical borrowings of the Renaissance period. Various other elements in the English vocabulary. Russian and Ukrainian borrowings in the English vocabulary. Etymological doublets. International words.

4. Criteria of borrowings. Assimilation of borrowings. Type of assimilation (phonetic, grammatical and lexical assimilation of borrowing). Degree of assimilation (complete, partial, lack of assimilation) and factors determining it. Interrelation between native and borrowed elements.

^ Working Definitions of Principal Concepts


NATIVE


is a word which belongs to the original English stock, as known from the earliest available manuscripts of the Old English period.

BORROWING

is a word taken over from another language and also the process of adopting words from other languages.

^ TRANSLATION LOANS


are words and expressions formed from the material already existing in the British language lent according to patterns taken from another language, by way of literal or morpheme-for-morpheme or word-for-word translation (e.g. wall-paper –стінна газета).

^ SOURCE OF BORROWING

the language from which this or that particular word was taken into English.

ORIGIN OF BORROWING

the language the word may be traced to.


ASSIMILATION


a partial or total conformation to the phonetical, graphical and morphological standards of the receiving language and its semantic system.

BARBARISMS


words from other languages used by English people in conversation or in writing but not assimilated in any way, and for which there are corresponding English equivalents (e.g. Italian ‘addio’, ‘ciao’ – English ‘good-bye’).

^ ETYMOLOGICAL DOUBLETS


two or more words of the same language which were brought by different routes from the same basic word. They differ to a certain degree in form, meaning and current usage.

INTERNATIONAL WORDS


words of identical origin that occur in several languages as a result of simultaneous or successive borrowings from one ultimate source.


.

Required Reading

O b l i g a t o r y :


1. Arnold I.V. The English Word. – M., 1973, pp. 248-256.

2. Ginzburg R.S. et al. A Course in Modern English Lexicology. – M., 1979, pp. 160-175.

3. Антрушина Г.Б., Афанасьева О.В., Морозова Н.Н. Лексикология английского языка: Учебник для студ. пед. ин-тов по спец. № 2103 «Иностр. яз.». – М.: Высшая школа, 1985, C. 34-59.

4. Верба Л.Г. Порівняльна лексикологія англійської та української мов. – Нова книга,2003,с. 120-124

5. Ніколенко А.Г. Лексикологія англійської мови. – Нова книга, 2007.


O p t i o n a l :


1. Aмосова Н.Н. Этимологические основы словарного состава современного английского языка. М., 1956.

2. Арбекова Т.И. Лексикология английского языка (Практический курс). М., 1977, С. 143-154.

3. Английская лексикология в выдержках и извлечениях. Пособие для студентов пед. ин-тов (на англ. яз.). – 2-е изд. – Л.: Просвещение, 1975, pp.172-192.

4. Мостовий М.І. Лексикологія англійської мови. – Х., 1993, C. 151-174.

5. Раєвська Н.М. English Lexicology. – K., 1971, C. 223-280.

6. Секирин В.П. Заимствования в английском языке. М.


Tasks and Exercises


1. Subdivide all the following words of native origin into a) Indo-European, b) Germanic, c) English proper.


Daughter, woman, room, land, cow, moon, sea, red, spring, three, I, lady, always, goose, bear, fox, lord, tree, nose, birch, grey, old, glad, daisy, heart, hand, night, to eat, to see, to make.


2. Below are given some etymological data for several everyday English words. Study their origins and meanings (in dictionaries). From what language do you think each of them was actually borrowed? What was the immediate source of borrowing?


BEAUTY n ME beaute OF from L ‘pretty’

CHARACTER n ME caracter OF caractere L Gr charakter ‘stamp, impress’

DEMAND v OF demander L (de)mandare ‘order’

DOUBLE a ME OF L duplus (duo ‘two’)

DOUBT v ME OF doute L dubitare ‘doubt’

MEDDLE v ME OF Rom L miscere ‘mix’

PLANE n IT L planus ‘flat’

PLEASE v ME plaise OF plaisir L placere ‘please, placate’

PLEASURE n ME plesir OF plaisir

REDUCE n ME L (re)ducere (duct ‘bring’)

SENTIMENT n ME OF med L sentimentum (L sentire ‘feel’)

UMBRELLA n IT ombrella (dim.of ombra ‘shade’) L umbra ‘shade’


^ 3. State from what languages the following words are borrowed. Comment on their meaning.


Alarm, algebra, anchor, artel, banana, bandura, cannibal, canoe, caravan, cargo, chimpanzee, chocolate, cocoa, colonel, czar, devil, dollar, gorilla, guerilla, hopak, jungle, kangaroo, kindergarten, khaki, law, lilac, machine, maize, mazurka, mule, nun, opera, pagoda, piano, potato, school, skipper, squaw, steppe, tobacco, taboo, tomato, umbrella, verandah, verst, vanilla, violin, waltz, wigwam, zinc.


4. Explain the etymology of the following words. Write them out in three columns: a) fully assimilated words; b) partially assimilated words; c) unassimilated words. Explain the reasons for your choice in each case.


Pen, hors d’oeuvre, ballet, beet, butter, skin, take, cup, police, distance, monk, garage, phenomenon, wine, large, justice, lesson, criterion, nice, coup d’etat, sequence, gay, port, river, loose, autumn, low, uncle, law, convenient, lunar, experiment, skirt, bishop, regime, eau-de-Cologne, act, aim, arm, art, ball, bank, baron, beauty, beef, bon mot, branch, brilliant, butcher, capital, captain, chauffeur, city, close, colleague, command, commence, count, courage, crime, cry, decide, degree, delight, emperor, employee, etiquette, exposure, face, fatigue, finance, foyer, fruit, gazette, genre, honour, hour, legal, leisure, machine, measure, minister, monsieur, mutton, naive, nation, office, pass, pleasure, poet, restore.


^ 5. Mind the following translation-loans. State the language they came from.


Blitzkrieg, bon mot, collective farm, Sisyphean labour, coup d’etat, enfant terrible, kindergarten, leitmotiv, persona grata, prima donna, swan-song, tete-a-tete, Fatherland, blue-stocking, the fair sex, wonder child, heel of Achilles, the moment of truth, mother tongue, Procrustean bed, five-year plan, masterpiece, sword of Damocles.


^ 6. Using a dictionary compare the meaning of the following pairs of words and explain why they are called ‘etymological doublets’.


Abridge – abbreviate, artist – artiste, captain – chieftain, card – chart, cavalry – chivalry, catch – chase, corps – corpse, canal – channel, gage – wage, hale– whole, hotel – hospital, legal – loyal, liquor – liqueur, of – off, pauper – poor, raise – rear, rout – route, senior – sir, scar – share, skirt – shirt, shadow – shade, suit – suite, salon – saloon, .

7. Comment on international words. Arrange the following international words into groups taking into account the sphere of life and man’s activities they refer to: a) scientific, b) cultural, c) technical, d) political.


Motor, sputnik, concert, constitution, evolution, phonetics, drama, parliament, decree, telegraph, meeting, pact, melody, history, lecture, republic, tractor, allegro, revolution, radio, dialectics, formula, gas, nylon, sport, club, bank, comedy, materialism, opera, jazz, civil, lyric, stadium, poet, analysis, cybernetics, satellite, rector, idea, film, electron, biology, idealism, robot, computer, printer.


^ Test Questions and Tasks


А. Consider your answers to the following:


What is meant by the native element of English vocabulary?

How can you account for the fact that English vocabulary contains such an immense number of words of foreign origin?

Which conditions stimulate the borrowing process?

Why are words borrowed?

What stages of assimilation do borrowings go through?

Comment on the interrelation between native and borrowed elements.

What do we understand by etymological doublets?

What do we understand by international words?

In what spheres of communication do international words frequently occur?


^ B. Match the Ukrainian term with the corresponding English equivalent.


Native

Інтернаціоналізми

Borrowing

Етимологічні дублети

Translation loans

Барбарізми

Source of borrowing

Асиміляція

Origin of borrowing

Запозичення

Assimilation

Кальки

Barbarisms

Походження слова

Etymological doublets

Джерело походження

International words

Власномовна лексика



Theme ІI ^ VOCABULARY AS A SYSTEM

The aim is: to consider general characteristics of the English and Ukrainian word-stock at the present stage of its development and to analyse the systemic character of the vocabulary.


The tasks are:

to investigate some debatable points connected with the problem of the number of vocabulary units in English and Ukrainian;

to differenciate between the number of vocabulary units in Modern English word-stock and the number of vocabulary items in actual use;

to analyze structural and semantic peculiarities of new vocabulary units;

to determine different types of grouping;

to learn working definitions of principal concepts.


^ Points for discussion


1. General Characteristics of the English Word-Stock. Active and passive vocabulary. Development and replenishment of Modern English vocabulary. Obsolete words, archaisms, historisms, neologisms. Structural and semantic peculiarities of new vocabulary units. Number of vocabulary items in Modern English and their usage.


2. The systemic character of the English and Ukrainian vocabulary and the problem of its classification. Structural classification of lexicon (simple, derived, compound and compound derivatives). Stylistic classification of the vocabulary (neutral, literary, colloquial). Literary (terms, learned words, elevated words) and colloquial words and expressions (literary colloquial, familiar colloquial, low colloquial, folk speech or dialect, slang, argot). The opposition of emotionally coloured and emotionally neutral vocabulary.


3. Part-of-speech classification. Lexico-grammatical groups of words. Thematic and ideographic groups. The theory of semantic field. Lexico-semantic groups of words. Synonyms. Criteria of synonymy. Types of synonyms (ideographic, stylistic, absolute). The origin of synonyms. A concept of a synonymic dominant.

4. Antonyms. Morphological classification of antonyms (absolute or root antonyms, derivational antonyms). Semantic classification of antonyms(contradictories, contraries, incompatibles). Hypero-hyponymic relations between words. Word families. Notional words and form words.

Working Definitions of Principal Concepts


VOCABULARY

the total word-stock of a language.

SYSTEM


a set of elements associated and functioning together according to central laws. It’s a coherent homogeneous whole, constituted by interdependent elements of the same order related in certain specific ways.

ADAPTIVE SYSTEM


a system constantly adjusting itself to the changing requirements and conditions of human communications and cultural surroundings.

SET


a collection of definite distinct objects to be conceived as a whole.

STRUCTURED SET


the number of its elements is greater than the number of rules according to which these elements may be constructed.

FUZZY SET


the boundaries are not sharply delineated and the sets themselves are overlapping.

EQUIVALENCE


the relation between two elements based on the common feature due to which they belong to the same set.

LEXICO-GRAMMATICAL GROUP


a set of words with a common lexico-grammatical meaning, a common paradigm, the same substituting elements and possibly a characteristic set of suffixes rendering the lexico-grammatical meaning. A subset of the part of speech several lexico-grammatical groups constitute one part of speech.

LEXICO-SEMANTIC GROUP

lexical group consisting of the same part of speech covering one conceptual area.

SEMANTIC FIELD

part of reality singled out in human experience and covered in a language by a more or less autonomous lexical microsystem.
SYNONYMS
words that belong to the same part of speech, different in sound form but similar in their denotational meaning (or meanings) and interchangeable at least in some contexts.

ANTONYMS


words belonging to the same part of speech, different in sound form characterized by different types of semantic contrast of the denotational meaning.



HYPONYMY

semantic relationship of inclusion.


PARADIGM

the system of the grammatical forms of a word.


CONNOTATION

the pragmatic communicative value the word receives by virtue of where, when, how, by whom, for what purpose and in what context it is or may be used. The main types of connotations are: stylistic, emotional, evaluative and expressive (intensifying).

ACTIVE VOCABULARY

words which a person uses.


PASSIVE VOCABULARY

words which a person understands.


OBSOLETE WPRDS

are words that drop out of the language altogether.


ARCHAISMS

when a word is no longer in general use but not absolutely obsolete.


HISTORISMS

words denoting objects and phenomena which are things of the past and no longer exist.


NEOLOGISMS

is any word or set expression, formed according to the productive structural patterns or borrowed from another language and felt by the speakers as something new.


SIMPLE WORDS

their stem contains one free morpheme.


DERIVED WORDS

their stem contains no less than two morphemes of which at least one is bound.


COMPOUND WORDS

consist of no less than two free morphemes.


COMPOUND DERIVATIVES

consist of two free morphemes and one bound referring to the whole combination.


EMOTIONALLY COLORED WORDS

are words that convey or express emotion.

INTENSIFIERS

convey special intensity to what is said, indicate the special importance of the thing expressed.


EVALUATORY WORDS

they can not only indicate the presence of emotion but also specify it.


EMOTIONALLY NEUTRAL WORDS

express notions but do not say anything about the state of the speaker or his mood.


THEMATIC GROUPS

include words belonging to the same part of speech united by one theme or topic.


IDEOGRAPHIC GROUPS

words of different parts of speech united by one theme or topic.



^ Required Reading

O b l i g a t o r y :


1. Arnold I.V. The English Word. – M., 1973, pp. 24-29, 199-235.

2. Ginzburg R.S., Khidekel S.S., Knyazeva G.Y., Sankin A.A. A Course in Modern English Lexicology. – M., 1979, pp. 51-64.

3. . Верба Л.Г. Порівняльна лексикологія англійської та української мов. – Нова книга,2003,с. 54-96

4. Ніколенко А.Г. Лексикологія англійської мови. – Нова книга, 2007.


O p t i o n a l:


1. Антрушина Г.Б., Афанасьева О.В., Морозова Н.Н. Лексикология английского языка: Учебник для студ. пед. ин-тов по спец. № 2103 «Иностр. яз.». – М.: Высшая школа, 1985, C. 9-34, 142-173.

2. Арбекова Т.И. Лексикология английского языка (Практический курс). М., 1977, С. 120-143.

2. Вердиева З.Н. Семантические поля в современном английском языке. М., 1986.

3. Вимоман В.Г. Английская синонимика. М., 1980.

4. Мостовий М.І. Лексикологія англійської мови. – Х., 1993, C. 114-130, 174-197.

5. Rayevskaya N.M. English Lexicology. Kyev, 1979, pp. 174-220.


Tasks and Exercises

1. Comment on archaisms. Arrange the following archaic words into lexical and grammatical archaisms.


Aught, belike, didst, dost, eke, ere, hast, hath, maiden, naught, quoth, shalt, steed, thee, thou, wert, woe.


2. Translate the following sentences. Pick out obsolete words and comment on them.


1. De Bracy blew his horn three times, and the archers who stood along the wall hastened to lower the dragbridge and admit them (W. Scott). 2. Locksley, for such was the name of this yeoman, readily took part in the archery contest and won the prize (W. Scott). 3. Their triumph was announced by the heralds, the trumpeters and shouts of the spectators (W. Scott). 4. Each touched with the reverse of his lance the shield of the antagonist whom he wished to oppose (W. Scott). 5. A narrow space between these galleries and the lists was occupied chiefly by the yeomanry and the burghers (W. Scott). 6. On the platform beyond the southern entrance were placed the five magnificent pavilions of the five knights who were the challengers (W. Scott). 7. At each of these gates stood two heralds, attended by six trumpets and a strong body of men-at-arms (W. Scott). 8. He looked like a strolling minstrel, for he carried a harp in his hand, which he played, while his sweet tenor voice sang a merry love-song (W. Scott).


2. Group the following neologisms as to the ways of their formation. Consult the dictionary and comment on their meaning. Give their Ukrainian equivalents.


Agro-industrial, audio-lingual, backpacker, beach, wagon, biotelemetry, black bluster, black shirt, by-time, chauffeuse, ecocide, ecogeography, epoxy, ethnoscience, facepack, hairstylist, halfday, listen-in, microcopy, microcomputer, vitaminize, wonder, boy, work-fellow, to adultify, alffluenza, Amerenglish, to arm-twist, arrestee, to awfulize, to babynap, bezzle, can-do, co-ims, to disimprove, eyeprint, gimmie, gloomster, gofer, illiterature, JIT, kissy, mechatronics, picturesome, pol, to quietize, to reschedule, squaerial, suspenser, to unimpress, white-knuckle.


3. Make distinction between neologisms and occasional words. Pick out occasional words from the following sentences.


1. The theory is getting less and less defensible. 2. I can’t speak on TV, I’m camera shy. 3. They accused the Administration spokesman of trying to sloganize the country out of the economic decline. 4. There are many men in London who have no wish for the company of others. It is for the convenience of such people that the Diogenes Club was started, and it now contains the most unsociable and unclubbable men in town. 5. He was wived in Texas, and mother-in-lawed, and uncled, and aunted.


4. Classify the following words into root words, derivatives, compounds and compound derivatives.


Writer, disappointment, deaf-mute, boyishness, break, wonderful, tree, book, unknown, notebook, egg, go, handbook, re-write, high, bald-headed, cry, well-dressed, railroad, highly, black, effect, morphologically, superman, open-hearted, honey-mooner, blackness, chocolate, good, readable, student, root-word, effective, classification, toy, compare, theatre-goer, accordingly, unpleasant, bookworm, classroom, highlight, blackboard, high-priced.


^ 5. Arrange the following words in hierarchical series, using tree diagrams:


furniture, desk, chair, bed;

lecture, speech, ovation, sermon;

relative, person, uncle;

carrots, vegetable, food;

automobile, vehicle, sports car, sedan.


6. Describe some of the differences of emotive meanings in the following sets of words:


mother / mom;

father / daddy;

policeman / pig;

hell / Gehenna.


7. Find cases of meaning equivalence in the following sentences.


1. He is still spry at eighty: very lively and nimble. 2. The space ship was the peak, the top, the absolute culmination of space-splitting speed. 3. “Why did you make a face?” “It’s that scent. I find it a bit too much. It’s – well – ” “Well! What is it?” “I fancy indecent is the word I’m groping for.” “It happens to be the most exclusive perfume on the market.” 4. On the surface he was exactly what she wanted in a son. Tall, fair, good-looking, athletic, but not a bore, conventional, but not a prig, with good taste, but not in any way ‘arty’. 5. Death alters everything. Death changes all. 6. I drifted back slowly into the pleasant void of sleep where there weren’t any aches or pains. 7. To queries she was always ‘not so great’ – an unspecified lack of health rather than any positive illness. 8. They were really furnished apartments, but the lady always referred to them as a flat. 9. A lapse of the ling. A slip of the tongue. 10. Dorchester is a delightfully peaceful place, nestling in stillnes and silence and drowsiness. 11. I did indeed propose a personal interview, my dear Master, but I ought to have begged, entreated, beseeched it. 12. I shrieked, Harris roared; George waved his hat, and yelled back.

8. Find antonyms for the words given below. Classify the words into affixal (derivational) and root (absolute) antonyms. Translate the antonyms into Ukrainian.


Alike, alive, big, black, clean, clever, darkness, to die, dry, enemy, evil, ti give, good, joy, to laugh, life, light, to love, narrow, old, to open, poor, quick, to reject, right, sad, slowly, strong, ugly, wet, wide, young.

Active, artless, attentive, careful, convenient, descend, disarrange, discord, downstairs, employed, fruitful, immature, impossible, misunderstand, order, outlet, painful, polite, pre-war, selfish, successful, underestimate, unknown, useless.


9. Express the contrary meaning by using antonyms. State whether they are absolute or derivational.


1. All the seats were occupied. 2. The room was lighted by the strong rays of the sun. 3. A lamp is a necessary thing in this room. 4. The little boy was outside the car. 5. He drew a crooked line. 6. The lesson seemed to be long and difficult. 7. On the tray there was a jug of cold water. 8. The coach was empty of passengers. 9. Around the garden ran a high wall. 10. The book looked dull. 11. They chose a cheap restaurant. 12. He was tall. 13. He opened the door. 14. He was sad again.


Test Questions and Tasks


А. Consider your answers to the following:


Which lexicological problems is the problem of number of vocabulary items connected with?

What is the difference between an obsolete and an archaic word?

What is a neologism? What is the difference between a neologism and an occassional word?

What are the structural and semantic peculiarities of the new vocabulary units?

How is it possible to regard the vocabulary of a language as an organized system? What are the elements of such a system?

What structural types of words do we distinguish in English?

Why is the grouping of vocabulary into parts of speech called lexical-grammatical classification?

What are the main points of the semantic field theory?

What are the main approaches to the definition of synonyms? On what criteria are these definitions based? Which aspects of these definitions are open to question?

What types of synonyms do you know? Give examples.

What are the characteristic features of the dominant synonym?

Which words do we usually classify as antonyms? Give your own examples of such words.

Which word is called a hyperonym and which is a hyponym? Give your own examples of hypero-hyponymic relations.


^ B. Match the Ukrainian term with the corresponding English equivalent.


System

Лексико-граматична группа

Adaptive system

Еквивалентність

Set

Парадигма

Structured set

Конотація

Fuzzy set

^ Семантичне поле

Equivalence

Система

Lexico-grammatical group

Антонім

Lexico-semantic group

^ Адаптивна система

Semantic field

Синонім
Synonym
Угрупування

Antonym

^ Структуроване угрупування

Hyponymy

Гіпонімія
Paradigm
Невизначене угрупування

Connotation

^ Лексико-семантична група

Active vocabulary

Ідеографічні групи

Passive vocabulary

^ Складні слова

Obsolete words

Емоційно нейтральні слова

Archaisms

Неологізми

Historisms

^ Тематичні групи

Neologisms

Архаїзми

Simple words

Історизми

Derived words

^ Прості слова

Compound words

Емоційно забарвлені слова

Compound derivatives

Активний вокабуляр

Emotionally colored words

^ Дериваційні складні слова

Intensifiers

Пасивний вокабуляр

Evaluatory words

^ Похідні слова

Emotionally neutral words

Застарілі слова

Thematic groups

Слова-інтенсифікатори

Ideographic groups

^ Оцінні слова



^ Theme ІII


MORPHEMIC STRUCTURE OF ENGLISH AND UKRAINIAN WORDS

The aim is: to study word-structure, i.e. number, type and arrangement of morphemes in a word, as well as to find out how different types of derivatives are constructed.


^ The tasks are:

to differenciate between the level of morphemic analysis and the level of derivational or word-formation analysis;

to acquire skills in segmenting a word according to the method of IC and UC and determining number and type of morphemes;

to acquire skills in derivational analysis of a word and determining a derivational base and its type, a derivational affix and a derivational pattern of the word;

to learn working definitions of principal concepts.


^ Points for discussion


1. Segmentation of words into morphemes. Principles of morphemic analysis. Procedure of morphemic analysis, method of Immediate and Ultimate Constituents. Morphemic types of words (monomorphic and polymorphic, monoradical and polyradical, radical-suffixal, radical-prefixal, prefixo-radical-suffixal). Types of word segmentability (complete, conditional, defective).

2. Definition of a morpheme. Classification of morphemes. Root morphemes and affixational morphemes. Free, bound and semi-bound morphemes.

3. Derivative structure and derivative relations. Derivational patterns, types of derivational patterns (structural and structural-semantic). Derivational bases, types of derivational bases.

Working Definitions of Principal Concepts


MORPHEME

the minimum meaningful language unit, an association of a given meaning with a given sound pattern.
ROOT-MORPHEME
the semantic nucleus of a word with which no grammatical properties of the word are concerned.

STEM

that part of a word which remains unchanged throughout its paradigm and to which grammatical inflections and affixes are added.

DERIVATIONAL MORPHEME

an affixal morpheme which when added to the stem modifies the lexical meaning of the root and forms a new word.


MORPHOLOGICAL SEGMENTATION

the ability of a word to be divided into such elements as roots, stem and affix.


THE PRINCIPLES OF MORPHEMIC ANALYSIS

the segmentation of words is generally carried out according to the method of Immediate and Ultimate Constituents. This method is based upon the binary principle, i.e. each stage of procedure involves two components the word immediately breaks into. At each stage these two components are referred to as the Immediate Constituents (IC). Each IC at the next stage of analysis is in turn broken into smaller meaningful elements. The analysis is completed when we arrive at constituents incapable of further division, i.e. morphemes. These are referred to as Ultimate Constituents (UC). The analysis of word-structure on the morphemic level must naturally proceed to the stage of UC-s.


IMMEDIATE CONSTITUENTS


any of the two meaningful parts forming a larger linguistic unit.

ULTIMATE CONSTITUENTS

constituents incapable of further division.


DERIVATIVE STRUCTURE


is the nature, type and arrangement of the ICs of the word.

DERIVATIVE RELATIONS

are relations between words with a common root but of different derivative structure.


DERIVATIONAL BASES

are functional units to which a rule of word-formation is applied. They present the part of the word which establishes connection with the lexical unit that motivates the derivative and determines its individual lexical meaning describing the difference between words in one and the same derivative set.


VALENCY

the combining possibilities of derivational affixes.


DERIVATIONAL PATTERN

a meaningful combination of stems and affixes that occur regularly enough to indicate the part of speech, the lexico-semantic category and semantic peculiarities common to most words with this particular arrangement of morphemes. (Ginsburg, p. 103)


^ COMPLETLY SEGMENTED WORDS

have transparent morphemic structure that is conditioned by the fact that its constituent morphemes recur with the same meaning in a number of other words.


CONDITIONALLY SEGMENTED WORDS

are words whose segmentation into the constituent morphemes is doubtful for semantic reasons.


^ DEFECTIVELY SEGMENTED WORDS


have unique morphemes met nowhere else but in this word only.

FREE MORPHEMES

can stand alone without changing their meaning and coincide with a stem or a word form.


^ BOUND MOPHEMES

are used only as a part of a word.


^ Required Reading


O b l i g a t o r y :


1. Arnold I.V. The English Word. – M., 1973, pp. 30-59.

2. Ginzburg R.S. et al. A Course in Modern English Lexicology. – M., 1979, pp. 89-107.

3. . Верба Л.Г. Порівняльна лексикологія англійської та української мов. – Нова книга,2003,с. 18-25


3. 4. Ніколенко А.Г. Лексикологія англійської мови. – Нова книга, 2007.


O p t i o n a l :


Кубрякова Е. С. Основы морфологического анализа. - М., 1974.


Tasks and Exercises



Analyze the following words morphologically and classify them according up to what part of speech they belong to:


ailment, superman, air, beggarly, calculable, disturbance, eternity, expressionless, eyelet, fair-minded, fruitfulness, governmental, indomitable, inflammability, judicious, intake, morphologically, memorize, nourishment, overpowering, reconciliation, renowned, runner, speechless, workmanship, high-priced, theatre-goer.


^ 2. Comment on the structural types and patterns of the following words. Translate the words into Ukrainian.


Unforgettable, curio, aggro, bookish, sailor, devastate, nothing, fount, heavier-than-air, fine, diplomacy, news-stand, father-in-law, exam, asleep, courage, Anglo-American, snow-capped, anxious, ne’er-do-well, sun-bleached, lady-killer, walking-stick, eye, fridge, telephone, artillery, penny-a-liner, speedometer, fruice, true-to-life, ill-fitting, phone, engage, discover, cupboard, notify, indefatigability, supremacy, snow-white, clumsy, democratic, inhabit, newspaper, impress, wonder, gym, comfy, civic-mindedness.


^ 3. Give the definition of a root-morpheme. Define roots in the following sets of words.


Bake, baker, bakery; civil, civilian, civilise, civilised, civilisation; collect, collection, collector, collective, collectivisation; differ, difference, different, differential, differentiate; gentle, gentleman, gentility, gentleness, genteel, gently; please, pleasant, pleasure; describe, prescribe, inscribe; success, successful, unsuccessful, successfully, succession, successor, successive; porter, transport, import, export.


4. Make distinction between derivational and functional affixes.


Translated, finished, reduced, collected, pushed.

Talented, gifted, bearded, black-hearted.

Tables, sisters, books, girls, pencils.

Colors, developments, draughts, powers, glasses.



Test Questions and Tasks


А. Consider your answers to the following:


How do you distinguish between a morpheme and a word?

What types of morphemes do you know?

What is the aim of morphemic analysis?

What are the principles of morphemic analysis?

What types of word-segmentability do you know?

What is word-formation? How is it classified?

What is the difference between word-formation and morphologic divisibility?

What is the difference between morphemic and derivational levels of morphological analysis?

What types of derivational patterns do you know?

What types of derivational bases do you know?

What are the peculiar features of derivational affixes?


^ B. Match the Ukrainian term with the corresponding English equivalent.


Morpheme

Морфологічна сегментація
Root-morpheme
Словотворча морфема

Stem

Валентність

Derivational morpheme

Словотворча модель

Morphological segmentation

Морфема

^ Ultimate Constituent

Словотворча основа

Immediate Constituent

Коренева морфема

Derivative structure

Основа

Derivative relations

Деріваційна структура

Derivational bases

Безпосередньо складовий
Valency
Остаточний складовий

Derivational pattern

Словотворчі відносини



Theme ІV WORD-FORMATION AFFIXATION. CONVERSION.WORD-COMPOSITION

The aim is: to study the derivative structure of words and the patterns on which the English and Ukrainian languages build new words.


^ The tasks are:

to differenciate between two types of word-formation: word-derivation and word-composition;

to distinguish between types of word-formation and various ways and means of word-formation;

to classify derivational affixes on different principles;

to investigate the productivity of derivational affixes;

to observe different approaches to conversion and compounding;

to acquire skills in applying basic criteria of semantic derivation within conversion pairs;

to learn working definitions of principal concepts.


^ Points for Discussion


1. Various types and ways of forming words. Word-formation. Definition. Basic peculiarities. Word-formation as the subject of study. Two types of word-formation: word-derivation and word-composition. Productivity of word-formation means.

2. Affixation. Definition. Degree of derivation. Classification of affixes. Prefixes and suffixes. Combinability of bases and affixes. Productivity. Allomorphs. Combining forms. Hybrids.

3. Conversion. Definition. The historical development of conversion. Conversion in Modern English. Productivity. Semantic relationships in conversion. Conversion in different parts of speech. Basic criteria of semantic derivation.

4. The criteria of compounds.Specific features of English compounds.Classification of compounds.


Working Definitions of Principal Concepts


WORD-FORMATION

Is the system of derivative types of words and the process of creating new words from material available in the language after certain structural and semantic formulas and patterns.

WORD-DERIVATION

is observed when there is only one derivational base and one derivational affix in a word. The principal means (or ways) are suffixation, prefixation and conversion (in this case derived words have no derivational affix).


WORD COMPOSITION


is observed when there are at least two bases.


AFFIXATION (PREFIXATION AND SUFFIXATION)

is the formation of words by adding derivational affixes (prefixes and suffixes) to bases.


CONVERSION

the process of coining a new word in a different part of speech and with a different distribution characteristic but without adding any derivative element, so that the basic form of the original and the basic form of the derived words are homonymous.

PRODUCTIVE PATTERN
that which can be used for formation of an unlimited number of new words in modern language.

ALLOMORPH
a positional variant of a morpheme occurring in a specific environment and so characterised by complementary distribution.

COMPLEMENTARY DISTRIBUTION
takes place when two linguistic variants cannot appear in the same environment.

COMBINING FORMS
those which in modern languages are used as bound forms although in Greek and Latin from which they are borrowed they functioned as independent words.

HYBRIDS
words that are made up of elements derived from two or more different languages.

BASIC FORM
the word form in which the notion denoted is expressed in the most abstract way. For nouns it’s the common case singular, for verbs – the Infinitive.

WORD COMPOSITION
is observed when there are at least two bases.

COMPOUND WORDS
words consisting of at least two stems which occur in the language as free forms.

ASYNTACTIC COMPOUNDS
those which fail to conform to grammatical patterns current in present-day English.

SYNTACTIC COMPOUNDS
those which conform to grammatical patterns current in present-day English.
ENDOCENTRIC COMPOUNDS
the two constituent elements of which are clearly the determinant and the determinatum. The distribution of the whole word coincides with the distribution of one of the constituents.

EXOCENTRIC COMPOUNDS
the two constituent elements of which are semantically equally important. The distribution of the whole is different from either of the constituents.
DERIVATIONAL COMPOUNDS
words in which the structural integrity of the two free stems is ensured by the suffix referring to the combination as a whole, not to one of its elements (e.g. teenager, kind-hearted).

COMPOUNDS PROPER
are formed by joining together bases built on the stems or on the word-forms of independently functioning words with or without the help of special linking element (doorstep, age-long, baby-sitter, looking-glass, street-fighting, handiwork, sportsman).

COORDINATIVE COMPOUNDS
the two ICs are semantically equally important (fighter-bomber, oak-tree, girl-friend, Anglo-American).

SUBORDINATIVE COMPOUNDS
the components are neither structurally nor semantically equal in importance, but are based on the domination of the head-member, which is, as a rule, the second IC (stone-deaf, age-long, a wrist-watch, road-building, a baby-sitter).

REDUPLICATIVE COMPOUNDS
a very mixed group of compounds containing usual free forms, onomatopoeic stems and pseudo-morphemes (e.g. hush-hush, pooh-pooh, blah-blah).

ABLAUT COMBINATION
twin forms consisting of one basic morpheme (usually the second), sometimes the pseudo-morpheme which is repeated in the other constituent with a different vowel (e.g. chit-chat, tiptop, shilly-shally).

RHYME COMBINATIONS
are twin forms consisting of two elements (most often two pseudo-morphemes) which are joined to rhyme (e.g. harum-scarum, titbit, boogie-woogie etc.).

JUXTAPOSITIONAL COMPOUNDS
are words whose ICs are merely placed one after another (classroom, timetable, deep-blue, H-bomb).
MORPHOLOGICAL COMPOUNDS
are words whose ICs are joined together with a vowel or a consonant as a linking element (speedometer, handicraft, sportsman, saleswoman).

SYNTACTIC COMPOUNDS
are words with linking elements represented by conjunctions and prepositions (forget-me-not, up-to-date, go-between, know-all).


BAHUVRIHI COMPOUNDS

possessive exocentric formations in which a person, animal or thing are metonymically named after some striking feature they possess, chiefly a striking feature in their appearance.



^ Required Reading

O b l i g a t o r y :


1. Arnold I.V. The English Word. – M., 1973, pp. 46-59, 100-111.

2. Ginzburg R.S. et al. A Course in Modern English Lexicology. – M., 1979, pp. 108-140.

3. Верба Л.Г. Порівняльна лексикологія англійської та української мов. – Нова книга,2003,с. 25-54

4. Ніколенко А.Г. Лексикологія англійської мови. – Нова книга, 2007.


O p t i o n a l :


1. Антрушина Г.Б., Афанасьева О.В., Морозова Н.Н. Лексикология английского языка: Учебник для студ. пед. ин-тов по спец. № 2103 «Иностр. яз.». – М.: Высшая школа, 1985, C. 59-79.

2. Английская лексикология в выдержках и извлечениях. Пособие для студентов пед. ин-тов (на англ. яз.). – 2-е изд. – Л.: Просвещение, 1975, 86-171.

3. Архипов И. К. Семантика производного слова английского языка. – М., 1984. – С. 4-18.

4. Бортничук Е.Н. и др. Словообразование в современном английском языке: Учеб. пособие для ин-тов и фак. иностр. яз / Е.Н.Бортничук, И.В.Василенко, Л.П.Пастушенко / Под ред. Ю.А.Жлуктенко. – К., 1988.

5. Каращук Т.М. Словообразование английского языка. – М., 1977.

6. Кубрякова Е.С. Что такое словообразование? – М., 1965.

7. Леонтьева С.Ф. Отрицательные аффиксы в современном английском языке. – М., 1974.

8. Мешков О.Д. Словообразование в современном английском языке. – М., 1985.

9. Мостовий М.І. Лексикологія англійської мови. – Х., 1993, C. 10-66.

10. Раєвська Н.М. English Lexicology. – K., 1971, pp. 37-106.

11. Царёв П.В. Продуктивное словообразование в современном английском языке. – МГУ, 1984, с. 28-47.

12. Adams V. An Introduction to Modern English Word-Formation. – London, Longman Group Ltd., 1973.

13. Bauer L. English Word-Formation. – Cambridge: Cambridge Univ. Press, 1983.

Tasks and Exercises


1. Comment on the meaning of the prefixes in the following words.


Afloat, afoot, afresh, alight, along, anew, awaken.

Amoral, anomalous, aseptic.

Befriend, behead, belittle, besiege, bewitch.

Uncomfortable, unequal, unhappy, unreal, unsafe.

Unarm, unbelt, unbind, uncap, undress, unmask, untie.

Disagree, disapprove, discomfort, disobey.

Disappear, disarrange, disband, disconnect, disjoin.


^ 2. Translate the following words into Ukrainian paying attention to the difference in their meaning:


Childish – childlike, colorful – colored, delightful – delighted, economic – economical, exhaustive – exhausting – exhausted, feverish – fevered, godlike – godly, historic – historical, loving – lovely – lovable, manly – mannish, pleasant – pleased, reddened – reddish, respected – respectful – respectable, rightful – righteous, snaky – snakelike, starry – starred, tasty – tasteful, touchy – touched – touching, watery – waterish, womanlike – womanly – womanish.


3. Translate the following sentences into Ukrainian. Pick out prefixed words and comment on the meaning of these prefixes:


1. He was disinclined to trouble himself with a young man (W. Maugham). 2. There would be a time for rearrangements and readjustments (G. Chesterton). 3. Your co-believers are remarkably unscrupulous and insensitive about those of us who have come to the opposite conclusion (Ch. Dickens). 4. As she talked to Mamma, relating the events of her journey, she displayed strong, discolored teeth which, however, were somewhat unmanageable and made little clicking noises (A. Cronin). 5. I am afraid, I misjudged you in the past, I beg your pardon (W. Maugham). 6. In all big cities there are self-contained groups that exist without intercommunication (W. Maugham). 7. Uncle Elliot said it was most improper and Mamma said she thought it unnecessary (W. Maugham). 8. He was a non-representative artist and he painted portraits of her in squares and oblongs (W. Maugham). 9. Until the events of the last few days he had been almost supernaturally steady all this year (J. Galsworthy). 10. He was an ex-fisher (W. Maugham). 11. Young Jolyon sat down far off, and began nervously to reconsider his position (J. Galsworthy). 12. Soames desired to alter his condition from that of the unmarried man to that of the married man remarried (J. Galsworthy). 13. There’s an unfortunate devil, who has got a friend on the poor side, that’s glad to do anything of that sort (Ch. Dickens).

4. Classify the following –er nouns into: a) agent-nouns; b) nouns denoting things which do what the stem denotes; c) nouns denoting persons who live in a certain country or locality.


Announcer, Britisher, cutter, defender, driver, fighter, footballer, foreigner, free-thinker, gardener, listener, Londoner, Netherlander, New-Yorker, offender, owner, reader, reaper, speaker, villager, opener.


5. Comment on the meaning of the noun-forming suffix –ess. Give Ukrainian equivalents of the following nouns in –ess. Pay attention to the corresponding suffixes in Ukrainian.


Baroness, poetess, actress, stewardess.

Empress, heiress, lioness, tigress, traitress.

Advanturess, hostess, Jewess, laundress, shepherdess, waitress.

Countess, goddess.


6. Comment on the meaning of the suffix –ish. Arrange the following adjectives into groups denoting: a) belonging to some nationality or locality; b) like, having the quality of; c) approaching the quality of:


Babyish, biggish, brownish, brutish, childish, dampish, devilish, dollish, fattish, Finnish, foolish, girlish, greenish, greyish, Irish, Jewish, kittenish, monkeyish, piggish, Polish, poorish, reddish, Spanish, Turkish, tigerish, whitish, wolfish, womanish.


7. Form adjectives by adding the suffix –ly to the following nouns. Arrange these adjectives into two groups according to their meaning: a) having the quality of, characteristic of; b) occuring.


Brother, coward, day, father, hour, man, month, mother, night, quarter, sister, soldier, time, week, wife, woman, year.


8. Translate the following sentences into Ukrainian. Pick out nouns with suffixes and comment on the meaning of these suffixes:


1. I have to say that you have a traitress in your camp (B. Show). 2. Mummy, is daddy in your room (J. Galsworthy)? 3. There is no happiness like that of being loved by your fellow-creatures, and feeling that your presence is an addition to their comfort (Ch. Bronte). 4. By displaying towards Irene a dignified coldness, some impression might be made upon her; but she was seldom now to be seen, and there seemed a slight difficulty in seeking her out on purpose to show her coldness (J. Galsworthy). 5. His cunning, his personal skills, his behaviour, his mixture of good-nature and unbendingness were all of a piece (C. Snow). 6. I recalled his high spirits, his vitality, his confidence in the future, and his disinterestedness (W. Maugham). 7. A dramatization of the work was made, which ran for a season in New York (W. Maugham). 8. He is the idealist, he is the dreamer. 9. From the top lefthand drawer of her chest she brought out a handful of sweets (A. Cronin). 10. The roar of the pneumatic cutter in that narrow space was deafening (W. Maugham). 11. He took a cigarette and sucked in a lungful of smoke (W. Maugham). 12. I have every confidence in my informant (A. Cronin). 13. A polite refusal is better than a rude grant (J. Galsworthy).


9. Comment on the examples of converted words in the sentences below. State to what part of speech they belong and the derivational pattern of conversion:


1. Miss Watkins was a nobody. She was a drifter. No family, no close friends (P. Benchley). 2. He turned his head wearily on the pillow. The nurse shooed us from the room then (H. Robbins). 3. But I am not in the least prepared to give a support to degrading superstitions (C. Snow). 4. I stood up as they neared my table (Id.). 5. I called Jane in and told her to get all the department heads up into my office…What was the good of being boss if nobody showed up for you to boss? (Id.). 6. She was wearing a tweed coat trimmed with fur, smart travelling clothes, foreign in make and cut (A. Christie). 7. George signalled for the check. The waiter brought it and he paid him (Id.). 8. The talk reverted to the subject which had been tabooed before (A. Christie). 9. Seizing the knocker, she executed a deafening rat-a-tat-tat and, in addition, thumped upon the panels of the door (Id.). 10. I heard a miaow behind me, and, turning, saw a lean white cat (H. Wells). 11. He was sweating a little from being down around the engines, and he straightened up and wiped his face with a piece of waste (E. Hemingway). 12. Caroline put the palms of her hands out to the sun to get them browned (M. Spark). 13. This was his last try (J. Hilton). 14. His face paled. Hatred choked him (P.O. Connor). 15. My thoughts have been much occupied with the ups and downs, the fortunes and misfortunes of married life (W. Maugham). 16. Down the road, in twos and threes, more people were gathering in for the day of marketing, the day of festival (R. Ludlum). 17. I used often to go out for a swim in the Pacific (I. Montagu). 18. He bridged his hand over his eyes – the light over the bed seemed to be blinding him (J. D. Salinger). 19. He tensed the muscles of his big neck, as though forcedly levelling his voice (D. Carter). 20. He waited, and the wait was not long (R. Ludlum).


10. Classify the following compounds according to the part of speech they belong to.


Age-old, home-made, anything, skin-deep, killjoy, yesman, salesman, ill-fitting, whitewash, three-room, first-rate, metal-cutting, baby-sit, haymaker, water-proof, handshake, well-bred, tender-hearted, whatever, anybody, one-sidedly, never-to-be-forgotten, himself, bottleneck, widespread, old-looking, sunbathe, whoever, third-rate, clean-shaven, hair-dresser, hair-do, well-wisher, oak-tree, life-long.


Test Questions and Tasks


А. Consider your answers to the following:


What do we mean by derivation?

How are affixes classified?

What are the principles of classification of prefixes?

What are the principles of classification of suffixes?

What do we understand by an allomorph?

What are the features of combining forms?

What are the characteristic features of hybrids?

What is conversion?

How is conversion defined in linguistics?

What features of Modern English have produced the high productivity of conversion?

Which categories of parts of speech are especially affected by conversion?

How can the problem of the original and the target word in conversion be solved?

13. What is word-composition?

B. Match the Ukrainian term with the corresponding English equivalent.


Word-formation

комбінуючі форми

Word-derivation

конверсія

Word-composition

гібриди

Affixation

аломорф

Conversion

деривація

Allomorph

словоскладання

Combining forms

словотвір
Hybrids
афіксація
Prefix
префікс
Suffix
суфікс
Complementary distribution
комплементарна дистрибуція
^ Basic form
основна форма






Theme V WORD-MEANING

The aim is: to study the problems of word-meaning.


^ The tasks are:

to consider referential and functional approaches to the problem of meaning;

to consider types of word-meaning and meaning in morphemes;

to analyse the denotational and connotational types of meaning;

to analyse motivation of words according to its types and degrees;

to learn working definitions of principal concepts.


Points for Discussion


1. Definition of word-meaning. Referential and functional approaches to the problem of meaning.

2. Types of word-meaning. Grammatical, lexical, part-of-speech, denotational and connotational meaning, emotive charge and stylistic reference.

3. Meaning in morphemes. Lexical, part-of-speech, differential and distributional meaning.

4. Motivation. Types of motivation. Morphological motivation, phonetic motivation, semantic motivation. Complete and partial motivation.


^ Working Definitions of Principal Concepts

SEMASIOLOGY
the branch of linguistics which studies the semantics of linguistic units.
SEMANTICS
the meaning of words, expressions or grammatical forms.
WORD
the basic unit of language. It directly corresponds to the object of thought (referent), which is a generalized reverberation of a certain ‘slice’, ‘piece’ of objective reality, and by immediately referring to it names the thing meant.

REFERENT


the object of thought correlated with a certain linguistic expression. Also: the element of objective reality as reflected in our minds and viewed as the content regularly correlated with certain expression.

CONCEPT

a generalized reverberation in the human consciousness of the properties of the objective reality learned in the process of the latter’s cognition. Concepts are formed linguistically, each having a name (a word) attached to it.



MEANING


is a certain reflection in our mind of objects, phenomena or relations that makes part of the linguistic sign-its so-called inner facet whereas the sound-form functions as its outer facet.


DISTRIBUTION

is the position of a linguistic element in relation to other units.


^ GRAMMATICAL MEANING

is that component of word-meaning which is recurrent in identical sets of individual forms of different words.

LEXICAL MEANING


the material meaning of a word, i.e. the meaning of the main material part of the word (as distinct from its formal or grammatical part), which reflects the concept the given word expresses and the basic properties of the things (phenomenon, quality, state, etc.) the word denotes.


DENOTATION


the expression of the main meaning, meaning proper of a linguistic unit in contrast to its connotation. It is the denotational meaning that makes communication possible.


CONNOTATION

the pragmatic communicative value the word receives by virtue of where, when, how, by whom, for what purpose and in what context it is or may be used. The main types of connotations are: stylistic, emotional, evaluative and expressive (intensifying).


^ DIFFERENTIAL MEANING

is the semantic component of morpheme-meaning that serves to distinguish one word from all others containing identical morphemes.


DISTRIBUTIONAL MEANING


is the meaning of the order and arrangement of morphemes making up the word.

MOTIVATION

is a connection between the structural pattern of the word and its meaning.


^ COMPONENTIAL ANALYSIS


splitting of an individual meaning of a word into its constituent smallest unit-semes (e.g. “woman” may be split into semes “human”, “female”, “adult”).



Required Reading

O b l i g a t o r y :


1. Arnold I.V. The English Word. M., 1973, pp. 112-139.

2. Ginzburg R.S. et al. A Course in Modern English Lexicology. – M., 1979, pp.13-28.

3. Верба Л.Г. Порівняльна лексикологія англійської та української мов. – Нова книга,2003,с. 18-67

4. Ніколенко А.Г. Лексикологія англійської мови. – Нова книга, 2007.


O p t i o n a l :


1.Антрушина Г.Б., Афанасьева О.В., Морозова Н.Н. Лексикология английского языка: У