Реферат: Education in the Middle Ages

The <st1:place w:st=«on»><st1:PlaceName w:st=«on»>Russian</st1:PlaceName> <st1:PlaceType w:st=«on»>State</st1:PlaceType> <st1:PlaceName w:st=«on»>Social</st1:PlaceName> <st1:PlaceType w:st=«on»>University</st1:PlaceType></st1:place>

Report on Pedagogics.

“Education in the Middle Ages

”

Madeby the first-year

studentof faculty of

foreignlanguages,

Chrckedby Khajrullin

RuslanZinatullovich.

<st1:City w:st=«on»><st1:place w:st=«on»>Moscow

</st1:place></st1:City>

2005

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Contents

TOC o «1-3» h z u

Preface_ PAGEREF _Toc105750725 h 3

Education in the OrthodoxChristian Civilization_ PAGEREF _Toc105750726 h 3

The Russian offshoot of theOrthodox Christian Civilization PAGEREF _Toc105750727 h 5

Education in the WesternCivilization_ PAGEREF _Toc105750728 h 9

Conclusion_ PAGEREF _Toc105750729 h 13

bibliographic List_ PAGEREF _Toc105750730 h 14

Preface

In A.D. 476 the <st1:place w:st=«on»>Roman Empire</st1:place>, as universal state of the HellenicCivilization, collapsed. This date is considered to be the beginning of theEuropean Middle Ages. The Middle Ages covers the period from the fifth centurytill the sixteenth century. Middle Ages are divided into the early Middle Ages(V-IX centuries), the Middle Ages (X-XIII centuries), and Renaissance (XIV-XVIcenturies).

Educationin the Orthodox Christian Civilization

Although the stages in the history of the Orthodox Christian Civilizationcan be identified and dated, the scanty materials about education do notpermit a comparable division in the development thereof. There were scholars inplenty in the society at many different stages, but education is rarelydescribed either by them or by the historians, and the allusions to curricula,methods, and personnel are for the most part vague and ambiguous. There islittle direct evidence about schools; what indirect evidence there is must bederived almost entirely from biographies of a relatively few individuals.

One of the distinguishing characteristics of the Orthodox ChristianCivilization was the close relationship between church and state, in antithesisto the separation of church and state in the Western world. The whole outlookand orientation of the society was grounded in religion so that the church, asthe official institution of religion, exerted an incalculably great influenceon all aspects of life including the «secular every-day education»and the affairs of the state supported university.

At the same time, however, public education in thesociety was predominantly secular and independent of the church. Little isknown about primary and secondary, but it is Marrou's opinion that in the East,there was a «direct continuation» of the classical education thatprevailed under the <st1:place w:st=«on»>Roman Empire</st1:place>. Certainlythe basis continued to be grammar and the classics, and the same textbooks andcommentaries continued to be used and copied. In higher education, the dominantinstitution was the university at <st1:place w:st=«on»>Constantinople</st1:place>,which had been founded A.D. 425 by Theodosius II, and the curriculum in itremained entirely classical.

Thus by the time of the emergence of the civilization, the education andculture were Greek and the lay, secular education was classical, but behind theGreek culture and the secular education the influence of religion and of theorthodox church were extremely powerful.

There were three types of education, or, rather, three types of schools:the classical, secular, lay schools which included the university and itspreparatory schools, in which there was a predominantly secular secondarytraining; the monastic school; and the special patriarchal schools. Each of thethree, and the preparation for it, will be treated in turn.

The Orthodox Christian child was brought up in the «nurture andadmonition of the Lord» and listened at night to stories from the Bible,was made to learn some of it by heart, particularly the Psalms, and was trainedin correct (Greek) pronunciation. The child was later on to be taught frompagan textbooks and was to read pagan literature, especially Homer, as a matterof course; at home he learned that «our» — that is, the Christian — learningwas the true and that the pagan literature, if not actually false, was only inpraise of virtue disguised as verse or story.

At the age of six or seven or eight the boy went to an elementaryschool. Most towns of size had at least one school with a fairly competentteacher or teachers, and children of all social classes could attend theschools; it seems that tuition fees were charged and that the schools wereprivately operated. The main subject of study in the elementary school wasreading and writing. When the boy was ten or twelve he began the study of«grammar.»

This study of grammar appears to have been a thorough grounding inclassical Greek language and literature, especially in the form and matter ofpoetry, chiefly Homer. Homer was probably still learned by heart, and explainedword by word.

After the student had mastered «grammar» he was ready to go onto a university. The curriculum at the university seems to have been, again,still classical in method and content. For rhetoric, the student would read andmemorize Greek masterpieces, and compose speeches according to classical rulesand in imitation of the older style. For philosophy he used chiefly Aristotle,Plato, and the Neo-Platonists. He seems to have got, somewhere in hiseducation, a knowledge of mathematics and astronomy, and of the naturalsciences, although it is not clear at what stage they were introduced. Theuniversity curriculum was organized, more or less, into the classical Triviumand Quadrivium.

But «neither the names nor the sequence ofdifferent branches of Byzantine education are very clear.» School anduniversity subjects appear to have overlapped; some study of medicine appearsto have figured in both, as did some study of the law.

There were important centres ofhigher learning at <st1:City w:st=«on»>Athens</st1:City>, <st1:City w:st=«on»>Alexandria</st1:City>,Caesarea, <st1:City w:st=«on»>Gaza</st1:City>, <st1:City w:st=«on»>Antioch</st1:City>,<st1:City w:st=«on»>Ephesus</st1:City>, <st1:City w:st=«on»>Nicaea</st1:City>, <st1:City w:st=«on»>Edessa</st1:City> and, of course, the law school at <st1:place w:st=«on»><st1:City w:st=«on»>Beirut</st1:City></st1:place>. Most of these were destroyed by theMuslim conquests, but culture was still alive in <st1:City w:st=«on»>Athens</st1:City>in the twelfth century, <st1:City w:st=«on»>Nicaea</st1:City> remained animportant centre of learning throughout the growth period and through most ofthe time of troubles of the civilization, and <st1:City w:st=«on»><st1:place w:st=«on»>Edessa</st1:place></st1:City> in the ninth century still supported apublic teacher of grammar, rhetoric, and philosophy.

The second type of school in Orthodox Christendom was the monasticschool. It was exclusively for those who had dedicated themselves to thereligious life, or those whose parents had dedicated them to it, for childrenwere admitted at a very early age. From the beginning of Orthodox Christendomas a separate society until the thirteenth century the ban on lay children inthe monastery schools was in force. The teaching in these schools was narrowlyconfined to the Scriptures (illiterate novices learned the Psalms by ear and byheart), orthodox commentaries thereon, lives of saints, and a few patristicworks. The children were taught to read and write but the instruction seems notto have been taken beyond the elementary stage. The monastic schools did notprovide the counter to the highly secular education of the lay secondaryschools and the university.

The counter to the secular education was offered by the third type ofschool in Orthodox Christendom: the patriarchal school or schools in <st1:place w:st=«on»>Constantinople</st1:place>. The very scanty sources suggest thatthese schools taught about the same subjects as did the secular schools, butwith a different emphasis: all studies led up to the study of theology. Thepurpose and function of the school was to train clerics and to combat heresy.The professors were ordained deacons and the rector was invested by thePatriarch of Constantinople.

The curriculum seems to havebeen organized into two divisions: the one including grammar, rhetoric, somephilosophy, and probably the other classical studies, the other includingchiefly the study and exegesis of the Scriptures. The rector of the schooltaught the Gospels, there was another professor for the Epistles and anotherfor the Psalms. It appears that the professors of theology sometimes gavelectures in literature and philosophy in addition to their exegetical courses.It is known that one twelfth-century rector gave courses in mathematics andclassical literature and philosophy which the students were required to takebefore they were introduced to the study of the Gospels.

Orthodox Christian influencewas also dominant among the Slavs of Russia.

TheRussian offshoot of the Orthodox Christian Civilization

The <st1:place w:st=«on»><st1:country-region w:st=«on»>Russia</st1:country-region></st1:place>to which Orthodox Christianity came was a primitive and barbarous land. Henceit was the Orthodox Christian Church that gave to the land all its culture: theCyrillic alphabet was adopted as the medium of writing and Cyril's translationsbecame the basis of the native literature; the already fixed dogma of thechurch was taken over in its entirety, so that there were no disputesconcerning fundamental issues of faith and practice; the liturgical forms weresimilarly adopted; religious pictures furnished the model for Russian iconography;and Orthodox Christian ideas were everywhere influential in daily life. Thusthe date of the conversion of <st1:City w:st=«on»><st1:place w:st=«on»>Vladimir</st1:place></st1:City>may conveniently be taken as that of the beginning of the Russian Offshoot ofthe Orthodox Christian Civilization. That this society was an offshoot notidentical with the main body is as clear in the case of Russia as in that ofJapan: despite the very large cultural and religious heritage from the mainbody, the language was different, the land was different, the culture becamedifferent, and the religious domination of Constantinople lasted only so longas the Imperial City remained powerful and inviolable.

Milioukov suggests that after <st1:City w:st=«on»>Vladimir</st1:City>'sconversion, education in <st1:City w:st=«on»><st1:place w:st=«on»>Kiev</st1:place></st1:City>was compulsory. Certainly both dukes and clergy worked strenuously to createschools and to collect and copy books. The efforts bore fruit, for by thebeginning of the twelfth century <st1:country-region w:st=«on»><st1:place w:st=«on»>Russia</st1:place></st1:country-region> had priests in sufficientnumbers to serve the people, and she had the beginnings of a native literature.The literature produced by Russia in the early periods was predominantly,almost wholly, religious and monastic: of the two hundred forty Russianwriters known to have lived before A.D. 1600, only thirty were laymen andtwenty secular clergy, the other one hundred ninety being monks.

It is known that c. A.D. 1030 the Grand Duke founded an academy inNovgorod for three hundred children to be instructed in«book-learning»; that he bade the parish priests «teach thepeople»; and that he established a library in connection with thecathedral in Kiev and gathered there scribes and scholars to translate booksfrom Greek into Slavonic. Other dukes founded schools in two other cities.

Little or nothing is known of the curriculum in elementary and higherschools in Kievan <st1:country-region w:st=«on»><st1:place w:st=«on»>Russia</st1:place></st1:country-region>although it is known that both existed. A prayer book called the Book of the Hours was used as thefirst reader and was followed by the Psalter. It seems certain that some of thechildren of noble families were sent to <st1:place w:st=«on»>Constantinople</st1:place>for their education. Vernadsky believes that during this period, there were afair number of schools and that the percentage of literacy, «at least inthe upper classes, was high»; he believes also that a few of the morehighly educated were perhaps as well trained as their Byzantine contemporaries.

Among these more highly educated were, for example, Hilarion of Kiev (c.A.D. 1050), who wrote discourses on the Scriptures and on the saints, and whoshows in his writings how thoroughly and quickly some Russians had assimilatedthe Greek culture and, at the same time, had modified it in an original way;the author of the twelfth-century Chronicleof Kiev shows an enormous erudition as well as a consciousness of theunity of the Slavic peoples and their common origins; the monk Daniel of thesame time wrote an account of his travels to the Holy Land; the letters of thecontemporary Metropolitan Clement give references to Homer, Aristotle, andPlato and show other indications of a knowledge of the Greek classicalwritings, while the Bishop Cyril evidences a familiarity with the works of theGreek Fathers and imitates them intelligently. In addition to these writers andtheir works there appeared in the latter part of the eleventh century ajuridical treatise, Greek and RussianEcclesiastical Rule, and the original form of the Russkaya Pravda, the firstcodification of Russian customary law. Vernadsky concludes that the«intellectual level» of the Russian educated elite was as high asthat in contemporary <st1:City w:st=«on»>Byzantium</st1:City> and the West,while Dvornik holds that <st1:City w:st=«on»><st1:place w:st=«on»>Kiev</st1:place></st1:City>in the tenth to twelfth centuries was, as a centre of culture, «farahead» of anything in the contemporary West.

These scraps of information areall that is known of education in <st1:country-region w:st=«on»><st1:place w:st=«on»>Russia</st1:place></st1:country-region> during the period of growth,and this early bloom of culture wilted with the beginning of the time oftroubles. If we date the beginnings of the society at the last quarter of thetenth century, then its growth period lasted only a little more than a centuryand a half. By the last quarter of the eleventh century the «centre ofgravity» had shifted north to the town of <st1:City w:st=«on»>Vladimir</st1:City>;by the beginning of the twelfth century internecine warfare among thecontending principalities had begun, and by the latter half of the century <st1:City w:st=«on»>Kiev</st1:City> and the other towns of the <st1:place w:st=«on»><st1:PlaceName w:st=«on»>Dnepr</st1:PlaceName> <st1:PlaceType w:st=«on»>Basin</st1:PlaceType></st1:place>had fallen into decadence. The internal troubles of the society were aggravatedand other troubles were added by struggles with the Lithuanians and, beginningabout the fourth decade of the thirteenth century, by the invasions of theMongols.

During the four-centuries-long struggles among the multiplicity ofcontending principalities and the more than two-centuries-long struggle of allthe principalities against the Mongols, education in <st1:country-region w:st=«on»><st1:place w:st=«on»>Russia</st1:place></st1:country-region> sank to abysmally low ebb.During the same period one of the states, Muscovy, gradually rose to a positionof importance, later took the lead in the struggle against the Mongoldomination, and finally, at its union with the state of <st1:City w:st=«on»><st1:place w:st=«on»>Novgorod</st1:place></st1:City>, A.D. 1478, established itself asthe universal state of the Russian Civilization.

It must be assumed that during this time, some priests taught somechildren and that there was some higher education for the few, since thecontinuity of education was not wholly broken and there were some scholars atthe end of the period; but there is no evidence for the existence of anywidespread education among the people nor even of systematic or highereducation of the clergy.

The first great victory of the Russians over the Mongols took place A.D.1380. Nearly a century later, A.D. 1472, Ivan III, Prince of Moscow, marriedthe niece of the last East Roman emperor; A.D. 1489 he rejected all claims ofthe Mongols and assumed the title of tsar or autocrat: he was now no longersubject to any foreign power; Russia was an independent and sovereign state.And the <st1:place w:st=«on»><st1:PlaceName w:st=«on»>Russian</st1:PlaceName> <st1:PlaceType w:st=«on»>Church</st1:PlaceType></st1:place> now became independent andsovereign — indeed, universal. <st1:City w:st=«on»>Moscow</st1:City> was thesuccessor of Constantinople, which, in Eastern theory, had been the successorof <st1:City w:st=«on»><st1:place w:st=«on»>Rome</st1:place></st1:City>. <st1:country-region w:st=«on»><st1:place w:st=«on»>Russia</st1:place></st1:country-region> was now«Holy Russia.» This assumption of imperial and ecclesiastical mantleswas accompanied by changes in the manner of life of the tsars and in theorganization of the palace: new imperial insignia were adopted, pomp andcircumstance added into the life at the palace. But little was done for education.

Boris Godunov in A.D. 1598 tried the experiment of sending young Russiansto <st1:place w:st=«on»>Western Europe</st1:place> for study. This was a breakwith tradition, for Muscovites previously had been allowed abroad only toEastern Orthodox Christian countries and only on embassies or pilgrimages orfor theological studies. The experiment was a failure: of the fifteen studentssent abroad, only one returned. Boris also proposed the establishment of auniversity, but this was opposed by the church on the ground that «it wasnot wise to entrust the teaching of youth to Catholics and Lutherans.»

It appears that until the second half of theseventeenth century what little elementary education there was given by thepriests. A sombre but apparently accurate statement is given by Milioukov:«The ignorance of the Russian people is the source of its devotion. Itknows neither schools nor universities. Only the priests teach the youthreading and writing; however, few bother with it.»

The few elementary schools that existed in <st1:place w:st=«on»>Muscovy</st1:place>from the beginning of the universal state until the late seventeenth centurywere chiefly for the purpose of training the clergy and a few governmentclerks. The teachers were local clergy, and the number of children taught veryfew. The subjects taught were reading, writing, and a little arithmetic.

In <st1:country-region w:st=«on»><st1:place w:st=«on»>Ukraine</st1:place></st1:country-region>a quite different situation obtained. There the Russian Orthodox Church wasconfronted with Roman Catholicism and consequently found itself compelled toorganize its education so as to be able to compete on intellectually equalterms for the allegiance of the people. There appears to have been a kind oforganization of the elementary schools, and A.D. <st1:metricconverter ProductID=«1631, a» w:st=«on»>1631, a</st1:metricconverter> higher school oftheology was established at <st1:City w:st=«on»><st1:place w:st=«on»>Kiev</st1:place></st1:City>.This academy became the centre of learning in <st1:country-region w:st=«on»><st1:place w:st=«on»>Ukraine</st1:place></st1:country-region>. Within a generation of itsfounding, a number of its scholars were called to Moscow and so Kievan learningbecame an important factor in advancing the intellectual life of lateseventeenth-century Muscovy. In A.D. <st1:metricconverter ProductID=«1687 a» w:st=«on»>1687 a</st1:metricconverter> <st1:City w:st=«on»>Moscow</st1:City>academy, modeled on the one at <st1:City w:st=«on»><st1:place w:st=«on»>Kiev</st1:place></st1:City>but with more emphasis on Greek, was founded. Vernadsky sums up theseventeenth-century development by saying that by the end of the century,«a thin layer of Westernized cultural elite had formed» and that thiselite could serve as a «connecting link between Russia and the West»and also as «a centre for the spread of new ideas» within Russia.

Educationin the Western Civilization

From the last quarter of the seventh century may bedated the appearance of the Western as a civilization independent of its sistersociety, the Orthodox Christian, and of its parent, the Hellenic. During thefirst century of its growth the only education, other than that ubiquitous andomnipresent apprenticeship education, was given in the monastic and parish andepiscopal schools and thus was established the intimate connection between thechurch and the school.

In Western monasticism from the beginning, theimportance of a knowledge of reading and writing for all monks and nuns hadbeen emphasized because the reading of the Scriptures and of the daily Officewas deemed indispensable to the devout life, and because it was considered apart of the duty of monks to make copies of the manuscripts of the divine wordand of other Christian writings. Thus, in an early (A.D. 534) rule for nuns itwas laid down that they were all to learn to read, were to spend two hours eachday in reading, and were to copy manuscripts. Similar prescriptions appear inother sixth- and seventh-century rules for nuns. The several sixth-centuryrules for monks made similar prescriptions, but more emphatically; and theBenedictine Rule, which came to dominate monasticism in the West, set out indetail the requirements for the education of children and for the means andtools of writing and reading. Latin — Church Latin — was of course thelanguage, but the texts that were read included none of the Latin classics —only Christian writings.

The second type of school was the episcopal school.The bishops always had around them a group of young men and boys as assistants,the children acting as lectors. Through the attendance on and association withthe bishops these youths learned, more or less by the apprenticeship method,what they came to know of Canon Law and dogma and liturgy. After the collapseof the Roman social and political system and of the classical schools, theseattendants no longer had grounding in elementary education or in secularculture, and it therefore became necessary for bishops sometimes to giveelementary education as it was generally necessary for them to give thespecialized theological and dogmatic training. This was the beginning, in thesixth and seventh centuries, of the episcopal school, which later, in someinstances, developed into a university.

The third type of Christian school was the parish orpresbyterial school. When the waves of barbarians broke over the Roman worldand the tide of barbarism threatened to engulf the social and cultural andeducational systems, and as the number of Christian converts had increased, thevery continuity of the Christian life through the priesthood was threatened,for the supply of priests was endangered. The answer was to make an adaptationof the system already in use in the episcopal schools: the Second Council of Vaison,A.D. 529, enjoined «all parish priests to gather some boys around them aslectors, so that they may give them a Christian upbringing, teach them thePsalms and the lessons of Scripture and the whole Law of the Lord and soprepare worthy successors to themselves.» It appears that a similaraction had already been taken in <st1:country-region w:st=«on»>Italy</st1:country-region>,and was taken later in <st1:place w:st=«on»>Gaul</st1:place>. Marrou remarksthat this action was a «memorable» one, for it marked the beginningof what was later to develop into the ordinary village school in which the twofunctions of teacher and village priest were «intimatelyassociated»—an institution new with the West, unknown in any general orsystematic form to the Hellenic society.

All three of theseschools were limited in range and purpose: they were to produce monks andclerics. The relevant legislation was the enactment that «every Monasteryand every Cathedral should have a school for the education of youngclerks.»

The maximum secularknowledge taught in any of the schools was the seven «liberal arts»of the Trivium and Quadrivium. The Trivium included grammar, which used someliterature by way of illustration, and rhetoric and dialectic. The Quadriviumincluded arithmetic, geometry, astronomy, and music. In Alcuin's time onlyAristotle's De Interpretatione andthe translations of Porphyry were known; of Plato, only three dialogues wereknown: the Timaeus, Phaedo, and Meno —all in the Latin of Boethius.

However, probably the earliest of the Medieval Westernschools that could be called a university was the school at <st1:City w:st=«on»><st1:place w:st=«on»>Salerno</st1:place></st1:City>. Already in the tenth century thecity was famous for the skill of its physicians. The famous physicians seem tohave attracted students to them so that by the first half of the twelfthcentury some kind of organized teacher-student association was described as«existing from ancient times.» Of the eleventh century revival ofinterest in legal, theological, dialectical, and medical studies, that inmedicine appears to have been the earliest. This interest, together with thebeginnings of medical instruction in <st1:City w:st=«on»><st1:place w:st=«on»>Salerno</st1:place></st1:City>,led to the establishment, in the twelfth century, of the«university»—which was primarily or purely a medical school. <st1:City w:st=«on»>Salerno</st1:City> was the one exception to the general rule thatsouthern <st1:country-region w:st=«on»><st1:place w:st=«on»>Italy</st1:place></st1:country-region>took no part in the great intellectual movements of the twelfth, thirteenth,and fourteenth centuries.

In northern Italy alreadyby about A.D. 1000 Bologna was a centre of studies and had begun to attractsome scholars from outside the city, and later in the eleventh century, the studyof law had begun to be a professional study separate from that legal studywhich was a part of general education.

In <st1:country-region w:st=«on»>France</st1:country-region>of the eleventh century the most important school was the <st1:PlaceName w:st=«on»>Cathedral</st1:PlaceName><st1:PlaceType w:st=«on»>School</st1:PlaceType> at <st1:City w:st=«on»><st1:place w:st=«on»>Chartres</st1:place></st1:City>. At <st1:City w:st=«on»><st1:place w:st=«on»>Chartres</st1:place></st1:City> during the first quarter of thecentury under Bishop Fulbert the Trivium and Quadrivium constituted thecurriculum.

The teaching ofgrammar included literature by way of illustration and used Donatus as thetextbook for beginners, Priscianus for the more advanced. The teaching of dialecticused the logical works of Aristotle, Porphyry's Introduction, <st1:City w:st=«on»><st1:place w:st=«on»>Cicero</st1:place></st1:City>'sTopica and Boethius'sdiscussion of logical categories and the kinds of syllogisms as commentaries onthe main texts.

Towards the closeof the eleventh century the reputation of the <st1:PlaceName w:st=«on»>Cathedral</st1:PlaceName><st1:PlaceType w:st=«on»>School</st1:PlaceType> in <st1:City w:st=«on»>Paris</st1:City>had begun to increase, and after Abelard's professorship there, <st1:City w:st=«on»><st1:place w:st=«on»>Paris</st1:place></st1:City> became a city ofteachers. One of the great educational movements of the eleventh century wasthe gradual transfer of teaching activity from the monks to the secular clergy.

It should perhaps be added that Paris was also thehome of the «collegiate» system: about 1257 Robert de Sorbonne,chaplain to the king, founded the «college» or «house» ofSorbonne as a college for sixteen men, four from each nation, who had alreadytaken the master's degree and wanted to go on with the advanced studies thatled to the Theological Doctorate. By the sixteenth century «theSorbonne» included the whole Theological Faculty of Paris.

A second French university was founded at <st1:City w:st=«on»>Montpellier</st1:City> in the twelfth century on the model of theschool at <st1:City w:st=«on»>Paris</st1:City>—a <st1:place w:st=«on»><st1:PlaceType w:st=«on»>university</st1:PlaceType> of <st1:PlaceName w:st=«on»>Masters</st1:PlaceName></st1:place>.

In <st1:country-region w:st=«on»>England</st1:country-region>,<st1:City w:st=«on»>Oxford</st1:City> seems to have originated in a migrationof students and masters of the English Nation from <st1:City w:st=«on»>Paris</st1:City>about A.D. 1167; in <st1:metricconverter ProductID=«1209 a» w:st=«on»>1209 a</st1:metricconverter>migration from <st1:City w:st=«on»>Oxford</st1:City> founded the university at <st1:City w:st=«on»><st1:place w:st=«on»>Cambridge</st1:place></st1:City>.

Thus by the end of the twelfth century there were sixuniversities in the West: <st1:City w:st=«on»>Salerno</st1:City>, <st1:City w:st=«on»>Bologna</st1:City>, Reggio (founded by migration from <st1:City w:st=«on»>Bologna</st1:City>), <st1:City w:st=«on»>Paris</st1:City>, <st1:City w:st=«on»>Montpellier</st1:City>, and <st1:City w:st=«on»><st1:place w:st=«on»>Oxford</st1:place></st1:City>.In the thirteenth century in <st1:country-region w:st=«on»>Italy</st1:country-region>four original university foundation were established and four more by studentmigrations; in <st1:country-region w:st=«on»>France</st1:country-region> threenew universities were established, in <st1:country-region w:st=«on»>England</st1:country-region>,<st1:City w:st=«on»>Cambridge</st1:City>; in <st1:country-region w:st=«on»>Spain</st1:country-region>and <st1:country-region w:st=«on»><st1:place w:st=«on»>Portugal</st1:place></st1:country-region>,four.

In the thirteenth century the term Studium Generale came into generaluse, and this is the term that perhaps most closely corresponds to the vagueBritish and American idea of a «university.» The Studium Generale at this time meant, nota place where all subjects were studied, but an institution with threecharacteristics: it had students from all parts, it had a plurality of Masters,and it had at least one of the higher Faculties, i.e., Theology or Law orMedicine. By the fourteenth century popes and emperors were founding universitiesby bull and charter, and Rashdall excludes from the «category ofuniversities all bodies» which came into existence after A.D. 1300 thatwere not founded by pope or emperor. In the fourteenth century there were fivepapal and two imperial foundations in Italy, three papal and one imperial inFrance, none in England, one papal foundation and two by royal charter inSpain, as well as papal foundations in Prague, Vienna, Erfurt, Heidelberg,Cologne, Cracow, and Buda, and Fünfkirchen in Hungary (the two latterfoundations were extinct within a century). The fifteenth century witnessed thefoundation of two more universities in Italy, nine in France, three inScotland, seven in Spain, eleven hi Germany and Switzerland, as well as one atPressburg (Poszony) in Hungary and one each at Upsala and Copenhagen. Thus thetotal number of twelfth-century universities was six; thirteenth century,sixteen; fourteenth century, twenty-two; and fifteenth century, thirty-five;giving a grand total of seventy-six for the four centuries.

In the twelfth and thirteenth centuries the largeruniversities probably had between two and five thousand students each and thenumber at the largest — <st1:City w:st=«on»>Paris</st1:City> and <st1:City w:st=«on»><st1:place w:st=«on»>Bologna</st1:place></st1:City> — in latercenturies probably never exceeded six or possibly seven thousands.

The education given at the universities in the sevenarts in the thirteenth and later centuries was secular: «A student in theArts would have been as little likely to read the Bible as he would be to dipinto Justinian or Hippocrates.» The church provided little professionaleducation for the future priest and less for the ordinary layman; even thebishops seem, in so far as they required any real standard of learning fromcandidates for holy orders, to have insisted mainly on secular learning."Seminaries for priests, catechisms, instruction and preparation for the firstcommunion, and so on, are the product of Counter-Reformation, not of theeducation, clerical or other, of these centuries.

This, in very brief, was the educational situation inthe West until the rise of modern Western science, the elevation of thevernaculars to the dignity of literary languages, and the emergence ofindividualism with that literary and artistic revival called «the Renaissance.»

The legacy of these early medieval Westernuniversities to the educational ideals and standards of the modern West isenormous. Rashdall is emphatic in showing that if the term«university» is appropriate for a modern Harvard or <st1:City w:st=«on»>Oxford</st1:City>or <st1:City w:st=«on»>Heidelberg</st1:City> or a medieval <st1:City w:st=«on»>Paris</st1:City>or <st1:City w:st=«on»>Bologna</st1:City> or <st1:City w:st=«on»><st1:place w:st=«on»>Cambridge</st1:place></st1:City>, it cannot be applied in the samesense to any school of antiquity. The ideas that teachers should be united intoa corporate body, that teachers of different subjects should teach in the sameplace and be joined by a single institution, that an attempt should be made tohave the body of teachers represent all human knowledge, that studies should begrouped into different faculties, that students should, after their preliminarytraining, confine themselves, at least partially, to one faculty or department —all this derives from the great twelfth- and thirteen-century academicfoundations.

It should be added that thekings and princes of the Middle Ages got their statesmen and civil servantsfrom the universities. Thus again, it was a literary and philosophical trainingthat seemed to qualify a man for the affairs of the world.

Conclusion

Thusin the Middle Ages there were factors which united a society and definedspecificity of training and education. First of all, it is Christian tradition,influence of antique tradition and, at last, mentality of a person. The MiddleAges also cannot be presented without barbarous pre-christian tradition.

A believing person was an ideal. Monasticism shouldgive a sample of education. An ideal of monastic education was moral education,removal from earthly blessings, self-control of desires, assiduous reading ofreligious texts, but it did not exclude necessity to get secular knowledge.
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